The Never Should Have Been but Were British Monarchs

To ensure royal succession for the family line, monarchs seek to have both an heir and a spare (the second son, the backup).  Some of the most infamous monarchs of England were born the spare- individuals who never should have ruled England.  These never should have been but were monarchs changed history.  This raises the question what if the heir survived.  How would history have been different if Stephen, Henry VIII, and George III had never been king?

King Stephen: In 1120, a ship carrying the heir to the throne, William, sank in the English Channel leaving Henry I with one surviving heir- a daughter.  Although Henry work feverishly to ensure the crown for Matilda, his barons ultimately rejected a female ruler because she lacked the military might expected of medieval monarchs.  Upon Henry’s death, Stephen was crowned king sparking a Civil War that only ended with the agreement that Matilda’s son, the future Henry II, would inherit the throne.

What might have happened if William had lived?   The throne would have passed peaceful from father to son without a breakdown of law and order. Matilda and Geoffrey of Anjou’s descendants- the Angevin dynasty- would not have ruled England.  In addition, without the marriage between Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine, English holdings in France would have been significantly reduced.  Since John’s expensive military failures in France was one of the major factors of the barons revolt that resulted in the Magna Carta, this document might never had existed (at least not in the same context).  Although primarily a conservative document seeking to enforce traditional rights, the Magna Carta’s written restrictions on royal power implied that the king was not above the law- a view that had lasting implications for British government.

Arthur, Prince of Wales

King Henry VIII: Although Henry VIII is infamous for his many marriages and separation from the Catholic Church, if his brother had lived, Henry would have disappeared from the historical spotlight. Arthur died from an unknown illness at the age of 15 shortly after his marriage to Katherine of Aragon.  After Arthur’s death, Henry married his widow to maintain England’s alliance with Spain and eventually inherited the throne.

How would history be different if Henry never became Henry VIII?  Without Henry’s desire for a male heir driving his quest for a divorce, the English monarchy would have little reason to convert to Protestantism.  In fact, Katherine’s connections with Spain and the pope would have reinforced Catholicism in the face of Protestant challenge.  The centrality of English government likely would have limited Protestant success in England.  While English converts to Protestantism might have sought a place to practice their religion, they would have lacked the governmental support given to Puritans making it impossible for them to establish successful New World colonies.  It is very probable without Henry VIII, Americans today would be speaking either Spanish or French.

Frederick, Prince of Wales

King George III: Although George as the eldest son was in clear line to the throne, the sudden death of his father, Frederick, changed the line of succession so that George was crowned king after the death of his grandfather in 1760.  Frederick, known for his extravagant lifestyle and rivalry with his father, died before his father from a ruptured abscess probably caused by being hit by a cricket or tennis ball.

How would history be different if Frederick instead of George was crowned king in 1760?  By 1765, George began to exhibit signs of insanity meaning his illness would have been known before he became king- possibly bringing his succession into question or at least weakening his rule.  If George never became king, what would have happened with the American colonies?  Did Frederick have the political astuteness to avoid or postpone the American Revolution?  At first most of the colonial opposition to England was directed toward Parliament and the Prime Ministers, not the king.  George’s paranoia, especially around William Pitt, resulted in decisions that intensified instead mollifying colonial anger.  In all likelihood, Frederick’s reign would have changed both the political actors and timing of events. Even if the colonies broke from England at a later date, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison would not have been the main framers of the American constitution likely resulting in a completely different structure of government- possibly a system closer to England’s parliamentary structure.

Henry VIII’s Unusual Death Companions: St George’s Vault

In the center of St George’s Chapel at Windsor lies a curious slab marking the contents of the vault below.

“In a vault beneath this marble slab are deposited the remains of Jane Seymour Queen of King Henry VIII 1537, King Henry VIII 1547, King Charles I 1648, and infant child of Queen Anne.  Memorial was placed here by command of King William IV. 1837.”

Henry VIII is known for his break from the Roman Catholic Church and the establishment of the Church of England.  His desire for a son to secure the throne resulted in a Protestant England, the divorce of two queens, and the beheading of two more.  Jane Seymour was Henry’s third wife and the only to produce a son- the future Edward VI.

Charles I inherited the throne from his father, James I.  James marked the beginning of the Stuart line after Elizabeth, Henry VIII’s daughter, died childless.  Both James and Charles were extravagant kings with little regard for English parliamentary procedure.  In addition to Catholic leanings, they attempted to reassert divine royal authority- the concept that the monarch was divinely appointed by God and therefore above the law.  This eventually resulted in a Civil War, a victory for parliamentary forces, and the beheading of Charles I.

Eventually, the Glorious Revolution placed Protestants William and Mary on the throne and marked the beginning of a constitutional monarchy in England settling the issues raised by James and Charles.  Queen Anne came to the throne after the death of William in 1702.  Despite 18 pregnancies, Anne had no living heir and the throne passed to the house of Hanover. One of Anne’s children, who died in infancy, was placed into a vault in St George’s chapel, and this vault was subsequently forgotten for 200 years.

How did Henry VIII, Jane Seymour, Charles I, and an infant child of Queen Anne end up in a vault unmarked until the 19th century?  Windsor Castle has been a royal residence for 900 years and the chapel is the burial place of eight monarchs in addition to Henry and Charles.  Jane Seymour was buried in the vault at Henry VIII’s command, and in his will, he dictated that his body be temporarily placed in the vault with his favorite wife until an elaborate tomb could be finished.  The plans for the tomb Henry intended as his final resting place had been appropriated from Thomas Wolsey, but it proved too ambitious and was never completed.  After his beheading, Charles’s body along with his head was sent to Windsor in hopes that a quiet burial at the chapel would make it less assessable to royal supporters.  About 50 years later the vault was opened again, and a tiny coffin containing one of Queen Anne’s children was placed on top of Charles’s casket.  It is quite possible that the other contents of the vault were unknown at this time.  In each of these cases, the vault was used as a private, more personal burial site as opposed to the more public site of Westminster Cathedral.

For a couple hundred years the vault was completely forgotten until construction workers uncovered it in 1813.  Upon its rediscovery, Henry VIII’s coffin was found badly damaged.  While it could have been damaged before its placement in the vault or as a result of structural damage, another theory suggests that it was damaged when Charles was hurriedly thrown into the vault.  However it happened a broken casket in a forgotten vault alongside a beheaded king was certainly not the burial place Henry had planned for himself.

War, Memories, and A Bear called Paddington

The field of memory studies examines not events themselves but why the memory of certain events continue to be prevalent, how memories change over time, and what these memories demonstrate about later cultures.  With the hundred year anniversary of the beginning of World War I, its memory has been particularly prevalent this year.

Representing a river of blood, the poppies at the Tower of London were a prominent and moving remembrance.  After the placement of the first poppy, the flowers grew at a steady pace reaching a crescendo on November 11- Armistice Day.  Each of the 888,246 poppies represented a British soldier who died in WWI and certainly left an impact on the thousands of people who travelled to London to see the display.  For those unable to see the poppies in person, this video offers a unique perspective.  The poppy serves a special role in British remembrance.  It is one of the few plants that will grow on earth torn battlefields and thus became symbols of hope and resilience in the aftermath of war.  While the poppies have been removed from the tower, there are no shortage of permanent memorials to those who died in the world wars reflecting the resilience of the memories themselves.

Equally interesting, however, is the way the world wars more subtly appear in modern popular culture. For example, in the Paddington bear book series, Paddington arrives in London from darkest Peru with a tag around his neck seeking a new home.  The author of the books, Michael Bond, drew inspiration for this from the evacuation of children from cities during World War II.  Cities, in particular London, were targeted by German bombers. Many parents in an effort to protect their children sent them out of the city to live with relatives or strangers.  These children wore tags designating who they were and arrived at train stations across the country hoping that a family would give them a home.  To read more about this connection between Paddington and the war click here.  For more about World War II evacuations click here.

Can memories of the world wars go too far?  Some have criticized a commercial for a British supermarket that uses the memory of the 1914 Christmas truce. To see the commercial click here. An unofficial, unorganized, and bottom up event, the memory of the Christmas truce has been clouded in myth.  There is evidence that in at least parts of the front lines soldiers from both sides put down their weapons and met in no man’s land to exchange gifts and sometimes play football.  In some places the truce lasted for a week while in others men who attempted to establish a truce were shot.  This event has been remembered as an example of humanity in the midst of a particularly brutal war.  Does its use in a commercial cheapen its significance?

Similar to the trenches that still mark the landscape of Europe, the memory of these world wars continue to play a role in our culture and the way these events are remembered are as much a reflection of today’s culture as the event itself.

Edith Pretty: The woman behind Sutton Hoo

In the early 20th century, two 6th century ships with elaborately adorned weapons and other goods were uncovered in burial mounds at Sutton Hoo.  The discovery was significant because while most mound burials had been looted (mounds acted as billboards declaring ‘dig your way to wealth’), these burials still contained an abundance of undisturbed goods. Although the ships had long since deteriorated, the people who constructed the mounds and their goods continue to fascinate us. An equally interesting story, however, is told in the house located roughly 500 yards from the mounds. Upon entering the Edwardian house, visitors experience the world of Edith Pretty, the woman behind the Sutton Hoo discovery, including a view of the mounds from her sitting room windows.

Edith was born on August 1, 1883 into the wealthy Dempster family, and she spent her early years extensively traveling the world.  After her mother’s death, she remained with her father despite reportedly repeated proposals of marriage from Frank Pretty.  Following her father’s death and at the age of 42, Edith married Frank.  Edith discovered she was pregnant four years later.  Shortly afterwards, in addition to a young child and her own illness reportedly contracted while she was pregnant, Frank became very sick eventually dying in 1934.

No one is sure what caused Edith to investigate the mounds in 1937- 11 years after the purchase of the property.  Edith knew of an earlier investigation that uncovered a large number of ship-rivets.  Some reports say that a friend’s sighting of a ghostly figure on the mounds or her involvement with spiritualism influenced her decision.  Possibly it was the sudden shift in her life after her husband’s death and struggle with her own illness.

Whatever her motivation, Basil Brown, an archaeologist for the Ipswich museum, soon arrived to begin excavations. Although not a Viking Queen burial as Edith believed, by 1939, it was clear the mounds contained an exceptional find and they gained public attention. An official inquest declared the items the legal property of Edith Petty.  Edith donated the entire discovery to the British Museum (the largest bequest during the lifetime of the giver).

Edith Pretty is a 20th century example of a long history of female patronage.  There were complex motivations for women’s patronage and certainly the reasons behind these acts have changed over time. Medieval historians tend to emphasize patronage as acts of both power and religious devotion.  While there was possibly a spiritual dimension to Edith’s patronage, her dislike of public attention and rejection of the honor of the Order of Commander of the British Empire offered to her by Winston Churchill suggests that power (or at least public power) was not a motivation for her. Her motivations were probably more personal, though her donation of the extensive collection of Anglo-Saxon finds was in many ways a public act that allows the public to continue to admire and study these goods.

For anyone who finds themself in southeast England, a trip to the mounds at Sutton Hoo is well worth the trek. I highly recommend the guided tour and the Tranmer House (Edith Pretty’s former home). For more information on Edith Pretty’s life and adventures see Edith Pretty: From socialite to Sutton Hoo (pub 2006) by Mary Skelcher a nd Chris Durrant.  Click here to explore the Sutton Hoo goods at the British Museum.

Chess Players as Medieval Delinquents?

One February day in 1377 Colchester, John Songere allegedly attacked Thomas Hobbecok with multiple knives tearing his clothing and assaulting him.  Appearing before the court, Thomas retold these events and ended with a word about John’s reputation.  Thomas made clear that John was a frequent player of chess.  This allegation of chess playing was meant to reveal the defendant’s real character: he was a disruptive member of society who should not be trusted.

Fines for playing chess frequently appear in the late medieval court records alongside dice playing and disturbing the peace.  For example, Henry Baker was brought before Colchester’s borough court and fined for sleeping during the day and staying awake at night when he went to taverns to drink and play chess.  This is a vastly different image of frequent chess players today so why was chess playing seen as disruptive in the Middle Ages?

Modern chess is very similar to the game that became popular in the Middle Ages. Around the year 1000, chess was adapted from the Eastern game to represent the western social order with nobility, clergy, and the working pawns all playing a role in the game.  Chess was a popular game in medieval culture with references to it appearing frequently in wills and literary works. The elites used elaborate pieces such as the ones currently on display in the British Museum pictured here.  Medieval people therefore must not have seen anything inherently immoral in the game itself.  So why were people fined for playing chess?

Social status was the main divider between those who could and could not play chess.  While acceptable for elite, who could learn valuable lessons about governing and warfare from the game, it was problematic for people in lower social groups, who were expected to spend their time working.  In fact, the fines for chess playing increased with the new laws following the Black Death forcing people to work to fill the labor shortage.  Clearly, members of the peasant social group should not spend their time playing a game belonging to the higher social orders.  This was a disruption of the social hierarchy.

In addition, these low status chess players frequently played in taverns- a location known for disorderly activity.  Along with playing chess in taverns and not working, these men also gambled and played dice.  Not only wasting their time, which should be spent working, these chess players were wasting their money.  All of these factors- the social status of the man playing chess, the location of taverns, and the accompanying of chess playing with other questionable activities such as gambling- made some chess players disruptive members of society and a social order in which some men ruled and some worked.

 

Where are they now? The Medieval Churches of Ipswich

The modern urban landscape of Ipswich reflects its history of boom and bust economic cycles.  For example, there is little Gregorian architecture as an economic downturn left few wealthy elites to invest in building projects.  The opposite was true for the economic boom of the late Middle Ages, when the community and elite poured money into religious structures.  The motivations for funding religious building projects included religious devotion, a reflection of communal pride, and a demonstration of wealth/power.  There are 12 surviving medieval churches that still dominant Ipswich’s urban landscape.

As with other European towns, Ipswich faces the issue of what to do with these structures, often located close to the town center taking up valuable real estate.  Despite having a disproportionally high number of surviving churches, only one of the 12 medieval churches has been declared redundant and is no longer in use. Six of the buildings continue to function as churches, and the town has found some surprising uses for the other five. Click through the gallery below to see how the 12 surviving medieval churches of Ipswich are being used today.  To explore an interactive map of the churches click here.

1. St Lawrence- Tucked in-between the crowd of buildings in the town center, this church’s existence can be easily missed. The 15th century church today functions as a community center and cafe. The five bells of St Lawrence are the oldest set of working bells in England (dating from ca. 1450). They can still be heard on Wednesdays between 12:30 and 1.

2. St Stephen’s- Built on the site of a church listed in the Domesday Book, this 15th-16th century structure today functions as the town’s Tourist Information Center. The interior still looks like a medieval church despite the guidebooks and souvenirs.

3. St Mary Elms- The surviving structure is from the 14th century though an earlier church existed on the same site as the door dates from the 11th century. The site continues to function as a church today.

4. St Mary le Tower- The present structure is the fourth on this site and was built in the 1850s. This church has particular historical significance as it is the place the town reportedly gathered to receive its first charter of liberties from King John in 1200. The building is still used as a church today.

5. St Clement’s- The current structure was built ca 1500 on the site of an earlier church. Its location near the waterfront means the church was associated with sailors. The church has been declared redundant and the building is currently not in use.

6. St Marys at the Quarry- Built between 1450 and 1550, the church is currently being restructured into a community center.

7. St Peter’s- Once part of the Augustine Priory of Peter and Paul and later part of Cardinal Wolsey’s attempt to found a college in Ipswich (the gate for the college is visible in the picture), the church is now used as a cultural heritage center and a concert venue.

8. St Marys at Stoke- Located in the community across the quarry from Ipswich, St Marys at Stoke continues to function as a church today.

9. St Nicholas- Built on the site of the saxon church of St Michaels, today this building functions as a Diocesan office and cafe. In addition, the St Nicholas Center can be rented for special events.

10. St Margaret’s- Located just outside the town’s medieval defenses, the church yard is the burial site of 440 victims of the 1665-6 plague. This structure is still used as a church.

11. St Matthew’s- Located along a busy road at the edge of the town center, this building is still used as a church.

12. St Helen’s- Drastically altered in the 1800’s, very little of the medieval structure remains. The Victorian tower gives this still functioning church a different appearance.

Bonus: Black Friars- The town center also contains the ruins of the Dominican Friary, the only surviving relics of the five religious houses in Ipswich.

Law and Community: The Cases of Scotland & Medieval Towns

Whether we are conscious of it or not we are part of many different communities everyday, including the country in which we live.  Our national identity in part defines who we are and our actions. Overlapping and at times conflicting with this national culture are local, regional cultures.

While certainly not the only nation with strong local identities, the recent vote on the Scottish referendum highlighted the tensions that exist between these identities in the UK.  Interestingly, the media coverage focused more on economic and political impact than cultural.  Raising the question: is there a strong cultural British identity?

The controversial Edinburgh Parliament building

People in Scotland would certainly identify as Scottish first and British second.  History, environment, and economy have all contributed to a separate Scottish identity, but so has governmental and judicial structures.  The extent of self government in Scotland has fluctuated over the years.  In 1999, Scotland gained its own executive government, which exercises considerable power over internal issues, but at the same time, this governmental structure is part of the sovereign state of the United Kingdom.

Scotland’s relationship to the UK is in many ways similar to the relationship between charter borough governments and the central government in late medieval England.  Royal boroughs were towns the king granted the right to establish and administer their own governmental and judicial bodies.  At the same time, these boroughs were governed by the crown and common law.  These overlapping jurisdictions could result in tensions between the local community and the central government.

So how is local, regional culture shaped through these governing structures?  Medieval borough courts regulated trade, social norms, and sanitation.  In addition, they provided a peaceful means of settling civic disputes.  Urban elites emphasized the role of the courts in maintaining the fabric of the community.  Although elites had multiple motivations for this justification, there were many examples of people fighting back when they felt the good of the community was no longer a priority to those in charge.  Law was an important part of the local community at multiple social levels.

At the same time, borough governments were charged with administering common law on behalf of the king meaning that the central government was a factor in these communities.  The increasing centralization of law is a favorite story of legal historians, but it was not a linear process and regional and institutional variation in judicial structures were important to local communities. Despite the growth of a national legal culture, borough communities fought to hold onto their traditional rights of self-government.  Similarly, the increased calls for Scottish independence occurred at a time when Scottish and British cultures are becoming less distinct due to travel, social media, etc.

Perhaps law is one way in which people attempt to hold onto traditional culture.  Socio-legal scholars have described law as conservative and a step behind social change.  This desire to hold onto or increase regional law can be seen as a way to protect the regional identity in the face of increasing nationalization.

Finding What is Left of Medieval Colchester

After discussing what has been lost of Colchester’s past (see previous post), I thought it was only fitting to discuss what remains- especially since I’ve spent the past month studying court rolls for the 14th-15th century town.  (Note: See gallery at end for more images.)

1. The Norman Castle– The castle was built in the 12th century by Eudo (William I’s right hand man) on top of the ruins of the Roman temple, which was burned to the ground by Boudica.  Left to fall into disrepair, the castle reopened this year after extensive renovations that turned the inside into a museum, which tells the history of the castle site from the Iron Age through the Protestant Reformation.

2. Several medieval religious structures can still be found.  While St Helen’s Chapel stands almost completely unaltered near the castle site, only the ruins of St Botolph’s priory remain.  All that is still standing of the once very impressive site of St Johns Abbey is the gatehouse, which is separated from the town by a very busy highway.  Other parish churches dot the city in various stages of reconstruction.

 

3. A few late medieval buildings appear alongside the shops in the center of town. The one pictured in the gallery is now a restaurant, The Timbers, serving traditional British food at very reasonable prices.  The Red Lion Inn started life as a 15th century inn conveniently located on High Street near the site of the medieval and modern town hall.

 

4. The layout of the modern city was clearly influenced by the Roman and medieval town.  The modern shops correspond to the location of the medieval market.  The new town hall was built on the location of the medieval moot hall.  In addition, High street still curves to avoid the medieval castle ditch, which no longer exists.  (One historian described this as the “medieval curve” in Colchester’s history.)

 

5. The town has not forgotten its medieval past.  This image of Eudo, who commissioned both the castle and St Johns Abbey, appears in a subway.  In addition, the medieval past comes alive the every year on the first Friday of September with Oyster Feast.

 

 

Clearly, the medieval period left its mark on the modern town of Colchester.

 

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Finding Medieval Colchester in a Modern City

Sign at Colchester Town train station

Colchester boasts a long history: from Roman settlement and Boudicca’s rebellion to a Norman castle, Protestant martyrdom, and Royalist stronghold in English Civil War.   So why does the town need to claim “more than” this past?

A pamphlet from the Colchester visitor information office echoes the same sentiment as the sign: “Colchester just seems to get on with it- history that is, and history in the making…there’s no licking of wounds from battling Boudica or civil war sieges here.”  Colchester’s message is clear: we are proud of our past, but we are just as proud to be a modern town among the ruins of this history.  Does this emphasis on modernization, however, take away from its history?   

My first impression upon arriving in Colchester was not its ancient history but its commercialization.  The downtown is packed with modern shops and department stores.  In his book, Medieval Colchester’s Lost Landmarks, John Ashdown-Hill bemoans the town’s emphasis on its Roman past and modern development to the detriment of the medieval town.  Weaving interesting tales of past medieval landmarks, including the town dunghill, Ashdown-Hill describes how they were destroyed or altered for the changing, modernizing town.  While the medieval moot hall was replaced because it no longer met the needs of a changing town, the top of Colchester castle was destroyed by an enterprising ironmonger in the 18th century seeking to make a quick buck only to find dismantling a castle was hard work. (I think everyone can appreciate that the dunghill is no longer standing across the street from town hall.)

The tension between the ancient past and commercialized present is a question of historic preservation versus modernization.  Do we blame a town for wanting to change in order to meet the new, changing needs of its community?  Should the past structures be left as museum pieces or should life continue among the ruins (as it has in Colchester)?  In fact, a lot of the ancient past survives in modern Colchester- if you know where to look.  Next to the Marks and Spencer department store is a late medieval Inn, and remains of the Roman wall run through the much expanded town.  Professionals can be seen eating lunch next to the medieval castle and on top of the Roman temple ruins. In the second of this two part post, I will explore some of the medieval landmarks that can still be found.

High Street- the main road in Colchester since the Roman period.

Roman wall alongside a car park.

If my dissertation were an object, it would be…

Since Maura Elizabeth Cunningham’s article, “My dissertation Sweater” posted on Gradhacker, the use of material objects to describe the dissertation writing process has been trending on twitter.   The metaphors include a patchwork quilt, spiderweb, and old chest waders.  I thought a good way to start my blog was to answer the question for myself.  After pondering several options (including an undercooked banana-chocolate chip muffin), I decided that if my dissertation were an object, it would be a desk from Ikea.

Shopping in the Ikea maze is usually an all day adventure- including a stop for some Swedish meatballs.  Similar to the prospectus stage, there are showrooms of furniture and objects all perfectly designed from which to choose the pieces of your own dissertation.  You are encouraged to dream big- this is what your    academic career could look like.  The desk looks stunning in the showroom surrounded by Ikea bookshelves.  You toss some Bourdieu or de Certeau in your bag as finishing touches and leave with your beautiful project all wrapped up nicely in a box.

Upon arriving home with the prospectus box, you begin to unpack the parts of the desk lining them up on the living room floor.  You begin to wonder if this was indeed the desk that you defended in your prospectus showroom- surely it was more put together than this.  You are suddenly overwhelmed with the incompleteness and messiness of the project.  You realize that this is only the beginning and you probably cry a little.

You dutifully carry on pulling out the instructions- assembly is required.  The picture instructions inside  the Ikea box, much like the dissertation research and writing process, are never quite as precise as you would like them to be.  You spend way too much time studying and restudying the instructions rather than actually constructing the desk: Does this particular step require the long or medium sized screw?  How exactly am I supposed to put these parts together?  Should I have extra parts?  Finally, you decide to jump in, and you quickly find yourself in the middle of many different research parts.

As you construct your Ikea dissertation, you experience many starts and re-starts, progressions and regressions, and joys and frustrations.  While moving along on one section, you all of a sudden see the other section of the desk differently realizing these parts do not belong together and must be reconstructed.  Although I’m still in the early stages of the dissertation writing process, I am hopeful that its completion will bring at least as much satisfaction as the assembly of my Ikea desk.  That all of a sudden, you look up a realize a desk has indeed began to form from the various parts and that indeed you have accomplished something.